ORIGIN AND ETHNO HISTORY

Historians and anthropologists working in India have divided the people of India into various ethnological groups and categorized them into seven ethnological types. The word 'Kirata' or 'Kirati' — a derogatory word — was coined by Aryans for the ancient Mongoloid people inhabiting the Himalayas around 2000 B.C., who were trading a medicinal herb called Chireto (Sunghing in Limboo language) when they came in contact with them.

The present-day three ancient Mongoloid peoples (ancient Kiratas) — the Limboo (Yakthungba or Limboo), Khambu Rai (Kirawa) and Yakha — called themselves 'Susuwa Lilim Yakthum Suwang.' There is not a single word 'Kirata' in their ancient oral tradition known as 'Mundhum.' The Limboos believe they are descended from Sawa Yethangs and have called themselves 'Susuwa Lilim Yakthum Suwang' since antiquity. From this, the terms Yakthumba, Limboo (or Limbu), Subba or Subha have evolved in due course of time.

An indisputable fact of the Limboos' contribution to Sikkim is the appellation of Sikkim itself. Tensung Namgyal, the second king of Sikkim, married his third Queen Thungwa Mukma, daughter of Yo-Yo-Hang (also called Yongyang Hang the King of Limbuwan). On completion of a new palace at Rabdentse, the Limboo Queen was asked to name it. She named it 'Song-him', which in the Limboo language means 'New House'. Over the years the word 'Song-him' metamorphosed to 'Sikkom', 'Sukkim' and then 'Sikkim' due to mispronunciation. This fact has been officially accepted and authenticated by the Gazetteer of Sikkim by H.H. Risley, 1894.

CLANS AND KINSHIP

The Limboos are divided into a number of exogamous patrilineal thars (clans) and sub-thars (sub-clans). There is no caste system in the Limboo community. Khagendra Singh Angbohang (1978) has listed 218 Thars and Sub-thars under 16 major Thars. The principal Thars include: Mabohang (20 sub-thars), Thegim (11 sub-thars), Shreng (10 sub-thars), Phago (20 sub-thars), Sawa (19 sub-thars), Bokhim (5 sub-thars), Khoyohang (17 sub-thars), Nembang (14 sub-thars), Hukpahang (17 sub-thars), and Khewa (22 sub-thars). Regulations of marriage alliances and indication of descent are the main functions of the thars and sub-thars.

NOMENCLATURE

The Limboos also use the alternative spelling 'Limbu', most popular in Eastern Himalayas of Nepal. In Sikkim, 'Limboo/Subba' is widely accepted and used. Today there is a growing movement in Sikkim to use 'Limboo/Subba' as surnames instead of clan names, so as to club all Limboos together and identify them across the world. Yakthum is an endonym used by Limboos among themselves — a male would be Yakthumba and a female would be Yakthumma. All these titles — Limboo, Subba, Tsong, Yakthungba and Limbu — identify the same community, as officially recognized by the Government of Sikkim vide Notification No. GOS-32/SJE&WD/WD/2018 dated 27/08/2018.

POPULATION AND SETTLEMENT PATTERN

During the 1891 Census, the Limboo population was 1,255 males, 1,159 females and 942 children, totaling 3,356 persons. According to the 2005-06 State Socio-Economic Census of Sikkim, the population of the Limboo community comprised 56,959 persons constituting 9.79% of the total population of Sikkim. The Limboo population is mostly concentrated in Daramdin, Soreng, Hee Yangthang, Bermiok, Maneybong-Dentam, Lingchom, and other areas in West Sikkim, and Namfok, Rabitar, Salghari, Tingmoo in South Sikkim, Assam Linzey, Aho and Pakyong in East Sikkim and Mangshila in North Sikkim.

THE LIMBOO HOUSE

The dwelling house of a Limboo is known as 'Khim' or 'Heem' in Limboo language. It has a rectangular ground plan with a rectangular roof, winged flaps on the two narrow sides (laphy), and floors generally made of mud or wooden planks. The walls are made of stones or mud and decorated or washed with white colored mud (khamphutla) on the upper walls and red colored mud (khamhetla) on the lower walls. The roof is supported by undressed timber pillars known as 'Sitlang'. The main central pillar is known as 'Hangsitlang'. The dwelling house generally consists of two rooms — one kitchen-cum-storeroom and one main room. A small verandah or 'sikuwas' is used as a sitting or drawing room. In the middle of the house is a slightly raised or sunken fireplace (Sumhatlung) for cooking. There is a worship place known as Mangdhan at the corner.

FOOD PRODUCTION AND FOOD HABITS

Limboos are mixed farmers depending on both agriculture and animal husbandry. About 25% of their food requirement is met through hunting of wild animals and gathering fruits, rhizomatous and bulb crops, and vegetables from nearby forests and riverbanks. They rear all types of domestic animals. Limboos are non-vegetarians; pork is their most preferred meat. Depending on their thar, prohibitions (taboos) on eating certain meats exist — for example, Khewa thars do not eat chicken, Nembang thars do not eat mutton. Rice is their staple food. They produce finger millet for preparing fermented beer for deities.

Food Items

Special food cuisines of the Limboo community include: Chyakhla ko Bhat (food cooked from crushed maize grain), Dhero (food cooked from maize or finger millet flour), Poponda (bread of maize, finger millet or wheat flour cooked under burning fire), Lungdhakcha (food prepared from freshly harvested maize flour wrapped in maize husk), Sigolya or Pennagolya (food prepared from barley or finger millet flour made into lumps and cooked), Kangbha (wheat, barley and millet lumps put into rice and cooked), Penna Manda (food prepared like soup from finger millet flour), and Khareng (roti prepared from finger millet, barley, maize or buckwheat flour).

Curry Items

Special curry items include: Chembighik (fermented soya bean), Kinima Sumbak (fermented soya bean curry), Yangben (curry prepared from macro-lichen collected from trees), Yangben Sumbak (lichen and pork meat with pork blood), Sargyangma or Karjyang (pork sausages), Sagie Sumbak (nettle curry), Nakthuk Sumbak (mushroom curry), Kattakwa nock sumbak (fern curry), Fanock sumbak (bamboo shoot), and Kasakpa (pork fat meat).

Achar Items

Special achar (pickle) items include: Phillingey machhi, Nambong Machhi (achar of perilla seeds), Phando Machhi (achar of soya bean), Yakhosi Machhi (achar of pumpkin seeds), Mesu (fermented bamboo shoot), Sura machhi, and other varieties.

Beverages

Popular drinks include: Khesung/Marcha (yeast cake for fermentation), Mangdok thi (fermented millet), Thi-Tongba (finger millet fermented in bamboo or wooden cane, taken with bamboo straw), Sejongwa or Rakshi (home-made wine), Thiseep (fermented and sieved beer), and Kandruk/Gundruk (fermented vegetable food).

Indigenous Fermented Foods

Kinema: A sticky fermented soya bean food produced exclusively by Limboo women. Black and white soya bean is soaked overnight, boiled until soft, and fermented for 1-2 days above the earthen oven kitchen. Shelf-life is 2-3 days in summer and 5-7 days in winter without refrigeration. Kinema is eaten as a curry with boiled rice or as achar.

Mesu: A traditional fermented bamboo shoot with a sour-acidic taste. Locally grown bamboo shoots are cleaned, chopped finely and pressed into a hollow bamboo stem, covered tightly with leaves and left to ferment for 7-15 days. Mesu is eaten as pickle, mixed with edible oil, chilies and salt.

Khesung (Marcha): A dry, round to flat, bread or cake-like solid ball starter ranging from 1.9 to 11.8 cm in diameter. It is a starter of fermented millet beer, without which fermented beer cannot be prepared. Exclusively prepared by Limboo women.

Thi (Jaarn): An important beverage of the Limboo community, used as Toongba (put in a bamboo or wooden cane) and taken with a bamboo straw. Used in all social and religious occasions without which occasions are considered incomplete.

Kandruk (Gundruk): An ethnic fermented vegetable food. Leaves of rayo sag or mustard or radish are wilted, shredded, pressed into a container and fermented naturally for at least 21 days, then sun-dried for a week. Taken as soup, pickle, or mixed with potato or other vegetables.

Khareng (Selroti): A cereal-based fermented food with Limboo mythological significance. Considered a mandatory and best-known item during the Balihang Tongnam festival. Sisters prepare this item and offer it to brothers as a token of prayer for their wellbeing.

Wamyuk: An important traditional food prepared from burnt chicken's small feathers and wings and other parts. The chicken's heart, liver, head and intestine are washed and mixed with other ingredients. This item is preferred to be eaten with millet beer and alcohol on festive occasions.

LIMBOO TRADITIONAL COSTUMES

Most traditional rural folk dress of the Limboos from antiquity includes Dawra Sruwal, Pattuka, Thutey Suruwal, Dhaka Topi, Waist Coat, Galfan Moza and Laber ko Jutta for men. For women: Fariya, Chaubandi Chola, Hembari, Mujetro, Pattuka, Moja and Lber ko Jutta.

Head Costumes — Male

Paga (Turban/Pheta): The traditional head costume of male Limboos. Based on Mundhum, the Paga was a prestigious costume used by elite Limboos only. It consists of one to one-and-a-half meter white cotton cloth. For Limboo priest Samba, Yeba and Yema, it is made of white and red colored cotton with Wassang (feather arrows) sewn. Today it is used in special ceremonial occasions as a mark of respect and honor to guests.

Muyesup: A cap with white and other colored clothes, developed for common Limboo people. It is customary to wear and distribute Topi or Cap during the final death rituals of the Limboo community.

Head Costumes — Female

Thakumay: The common traditional head costume of Limboo women. Made of white cotton cloth about one-and-a-half meters long and one-meter wide. Used by all classes of Limboo women.

Pothang: Similar to Thakumay but made of bright red cotton cloth, used specially for the bride and groom at the time of the Mekkam ritual of marriage.

Upper Body — Male

Six types of traditional costumes for the upper body of Limboo men developed from the primitive single-piece dress 'taga': (1) Sardokpa, (2) Pagappa, (3) Paohoa, (4) Suthekwa, (5) Lappeta Dawra, (6) Laoghek. Hangchang is the royal dress of elite people or the king. Sunghreba (coat type), Ascoat (waist coat), Suthekwa and Aalphi (shirt) were adopted after contact with western people in the late 18th to early 19th century.

Upper Body — Female

Three main body traditional costumes for Limboo women developed from the primitive one-piece female dress 'loghe': (1) Sunghamba (for unmarried girls, without Chungnam), (2) Chungloghek and (3) Chaubandi (for married women, tied with four pairs of Changnam or Tuna). Mekhli is the Bridal Dress, usually made of red cotton.

Waist Region

Phayee: made of white cotton cloth 2-3 meters long, tied around the waist by both genders. Pangphayee: a wide belt of red cotton worn by religious priests Samba, Yeba (male) and Yema (female) during mystic functions.

Traditional Ornaments — Male

•       Gokul: earring made of gold and silver

•       Hebo Samyang: gold nails pegged on the front teeth

•       Namloyee: silver necklace (also known as Chandrahara in Nepali)

•       Sikri: chain made of gold or silver

•       Hukpangee: silver bracelet (Chura in Nepali)

•       Swakep: finger rings made of gold, silver or brass

Traditional Ornaments — Female

•       Ear: Nessey (Chaptey Soon in Nepali, gold), Terengna (silver), Laskari (gold), Kanthungri (gold)

•       Nose: Thungri, Nebophung (gold), Pholaki or Mundri (gold)

•       Forehead: Samyangphung (Shirbandi in Nepali, gold), Namphung (Shirphul in Nepali, gold), Laghekcho Sikri (combination of three parallel chains)

•       Necklace: Namloyee (silver, exclusive Limboo ornament), Samyang Patche or Kantha (gold), Pongwari or Kanthui (red coral beads)

•       Hand: Hukpangi (Chura in Nepali, gold or silver), Swakep (gold finger rings)

•       Leg: Langpangi (Kalli in Nepali, silver)

LIMBOO TRADITIONAL DANCE AND MUSIC

Ceremonial Dances

There are two kinds of ceremonies — religious and social. The Limboo Sewa Samlo, performed while dancing with Ke-lang at the time of a house warming ceremony, is an example of a ceremonial dance.

Yialakma

Yialakma (Dhan Nach in Khas language) is the most popular dance among the Limboo community. It is a harvest dance in which teenagers to late adults of both sexes participate enthusiastically. The dance was traditionally organized at night during paddy harvest seasons. It is now organized during festive seasons like marriage, death rituals, New Year celebrations, traditional ceremonies, and fairs.

Tamkey Okma (Seasonal Dance)

Tamkey Ookma (meaning 'digging with melodious song singing with partners' in Limboo language) is performed in the open maize field at the time of the first earthing-up operation of maize during the pre-monsoon season. Individual partners take spades and the earthing-up of maize crop is done in consonance with the motion of song and counter-reply of the partners. The melodious song often leads to love songs.

Kay Lang or Chyabrung (Drum Dance)

Kay Lang or Chyabrung is one of the most popular drum dances of the Limboo community — well-known to many other communities in Sikkim and neighboring states. The dancers consist of several males and sometimes with female members dancing with bodily actions; the number of participants ranges from 6 to 20 or more.

Folk Musical Instruments

According to Mundhum mythology, the first musical instrument was a bamboo harp known as Simikla Kom (Binayo in Khas language), made by the sons of Sawa Yukphung Kemba. Important instruments include:

•       Simikla Kom: bamboo harp, the first musical instrument of the Limboos

•       Niyara Hongsing Kay (Chyabrung): drum used in the house warming ceremony to protect the newly constructed house from evil spirits

•       Negra (Kettle Drum): a royal musical instrument. Ownership required explicit order from the royal authority of Sikkim, given with a Lalmohar (written document with red seal). Used in almost all occasions of celebration and sorrow. The tune of the music signifies the kind of event taking place within the Limboo community.

Folk Songs

The Limboo community's folk songs have been divided into five groups:

•       Khyali: Dialog songs where young boys and girls express their romantic feelings in poetic language with tune

•       Sordokpa Pallam Samlo, Pallam Samlo and Tamkey Ookma Pallam Samlo: Love songs sung while dancing or working, providing a forum for courtship

•       Hakpare Samlo: Gentlemen and women song sung on special festive occasions by elder people for entertainment

•       Nisammang Sewa Samlo: Ceremonial songs sung on special festive and worship occasions by young boys and girls

•       Kay-Lang Samlo: Songs sung while dancing Kay Lang on special occasions or for entertainment

LIMBOO FESTIVALS

Balihang Tongnam (Tihar)

Among all other festivals of the Limboo community, 'Balihang Tongnam' (Tihar) is regarded as one of the most significant celebrations. Limboos residing anywhere in the country or world celebrate this festival with tremendous enthusiasm and happiness.

Chasok-Thisok (Harvest Festival)

Chasok-Thisok is a celebration to offer new food grains, fruits, roots, tubers and other agricultural products to the gods and goddesses when they are ripe or ready for harvest. The supreme Goddess Yuma Mang is worshipped through her worldly form Yuma Sammang. The Limboos believe that Yuma Sammang gave these crops and animals to them for survival and thus they offer and sacrifice the first harvest and the first progeny to Yuma Sammang.

Kok Phekwa La-gaenge (Maghe Sankranti)

The Limboos follow the Yalamber Calendar, and as per this calendar the first day of the Limboo New Year falls on 14th January, known as 'Kok Phekwa Tumyen.' The New Year Day is celebrated with full joy and happiness and welcomes the most prosperous and happy New Year. On this day, Sammangs are propitiated with offerings of roots, tuber crops and even blood sacrifices of fowls after taking a bath at the confluence of rivers like the Teesta and Rangeet.

Tyeongshi Sirijunga Sawan Tongnam

The birth anniversary of Tyeongshi Srijunga Singthebe — the incarnate of King Srijunga Hang of the 9th century who codified the Limboo script now known as Srijunga Script — is celebrated as a festival. Tyeongshi Srijunga Singthebe (1704-1742) is singly credited with the revival and propagation of reading and writing in the Srijunga script in Sikkim. While propagating the language and script, he was assassinated in 1742, sacrificing his life for the cause of the Limboos. The Government of Sikkim has declared this day as a Government holiday since 1997.

Iman Sing Chemjong Sawan Tongnam

The birth anniversary of Iman Sing Chemjong (1904-1976) — the great historian and Limboo language expert — is celebrated as a festival. In Sikkim, the festival is organized by Sukkhim Yakthung Saplon Chumbho, West Sikkim, every year since 1997. Annual literary competitions on Limboo poem, essay, stories and drama are held, and winners are awarded for the promotion of Limboo language and literature.

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

The Limboo language was given the status of official language by the Sikkim Government in 1981. During the 9th century A.D., the king popularly called Srijunga Hang invented/devised a script of Limboo language now known as the 'Srijunga Script'. The design of the script resembles the Brahmi script of the Gupta period (4th to 8th century A.D.). Later, Srijunga Tyeongshi (1704-1741) revived and popularized the Srijunga Script. The Srijunga script was computerized in 1995.

The Limboo Literary Association (Sukkhim Yakthung Sapsok Sangjunbho) was registered in 1979. Graduate level classes in Limboo were started in the year 2000 under NBU, and Sikkim University formally started classes from 2008. PhD courses have also been started from the year 2022. The Limboo language along with Bhutia and Lepcha language received UGC recognition for teaching at Master's degree level from 2016.

RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS — YUMAISM

'Yuma Samyo' or Yumaism is the religion followed by the Limboo community. Yumaism is a Henotheist or Kathenotheist religion that believes in a single Almighty Goddess 'Tagera Ningwaphuma', also popularly known as 'Yumamang', while still recognizing other gods and goddesses created by her as her messengers or manifestations. The basic concept of Yumaism is that Tagera Ningwaphuma created the universe including every living and non-living thing with the help of her messengers known as Mangs (Deities). The religion does not believe in idol worship. Adherents pray every morning and evening to the Almighty Goddess.

A collective worship place known as 'Mangheem' has been constructed for the Almighty Goddess in many places from the last quarter of the 20th century. The Mangheem comprises eight steps on the center inside tapering on the top, representing the eight atmospheric layers of the earth. The outer structure comprises three layers plus five cone 'Star' at the top (Gajur), representing nine Dens or realms.

The Limboo Religious Priests — Phedangmas

The Yuma religious practitioners are collectively known as Phedangmas — a general term for all types of Limboo religious practitioners. They are reincarnate part-time religious practitioners who officiate and perform all life rituals and worship such as pre-natal womb worship, birth rituals, new born child naming, purification rituals, solemnizing marriage weddings, death rituals, harvest ceremonies, and curing and healing of the sick.

Historically, the Limboos recognize nine types of Phedangmas: (i) Muhikkum Ongshi, (ii) Phejiri Phedangma, (iii) Samboko Samba, (iv) Yeboko Yeba, (v) Yeboko Yema, (vi) Yuma Sam, (vii) Sammundhum, (viii) Yepmundhum, (ix) Sidapangdang. They differ in their gear or costumes (Sama), their role in religious functions, worship methodology as curers, healers, and in offerings to supernatural beings.